Elaboration Strategy

Students are usually able to encode target information faster and remember it longer when they associate it with elaboration information than when they do not. They remember it better because the associated elaboration information functions as a "retrieval cue" [1] for the target information, a sort of "memory hook" of "memory peg" [2] on which the target information is hung.

SUMMARY GUIDELINES FOR USING AN ELABORATION STRATEGY

STEP ONE: ENCODE TARGET AND ELABORATION INFORMATION

Tell or show students the target information and elaboration information and help them tell or show it back. Provide guidance.

ELABORATION TASK

Help students identify the target information and elaboration information and practice encoding the elaborated target information. Use one of three types of elaborative information with the target information.

1. Images

Use an elaboration that consists of sensory experiences, such as visual, auditory, olfactory, touch, kinesthesis, temperature, or any combination of these.

2. Episodes

Use an elaboration that consists of stories, of narratives. Personal experiences are usually most effective.

3. Mnemonics

Use an elaboration that consists of images and/or words that have been specially designed to help students retrieve the target information later.

ELABORATION GUIDANCE

While students are performing elaboration tasks, focus their attention on the target and elaboration information.

STEP TWO: PRACTICE RETRIEVING TARGET INFORMATION

Have all students retrieve the target information from long-term memory without the elaboration being present. Provide guidance.

RECALL-PRACTICE TASK

Use activities that require all students to retrieve the target information frequently and by itself, without the elaboration.

RECALL-PRACTICE GUIDANCE

During and after all students perform recall-practice tasks; confirm their adequate retrieval of the target information, and correct their inadequate retrieval. Vary the explicitness of guidance. When they are unable to retrieve the target information from memory, provide explicit guidance that is intended to help them retrieve the elaboration, and then use it to cue retrieval of the target information.

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1. Tulving, E. (1974). Cue-dependent forgetting. American Scientist, 62, 74-82.

2. Paivio, A. (1986). Dual coding and episodic memory: Subjective and objective sources of memory trace components. In. F. Flix & H. Hafgendolrf, (Eds.), Human memory and cognitive abilities: Mechanisms and performance (Part A, pp. 225-236). Amsterdam: North-Holland.

Rehearsal Strategy: Note Taking

This posting will focus on Steps One and Two of a Rehearsal Strategy when the Rehearsal Task uses Note Taking. When performing a Rehearsal Task that involves taking notes, students write about what is presented to them in lectures and textbooks, only some of which is target information. Taking notes during lectures is the sole learning method used by most high school and college students [1]. As many as 75 percent of college courses use lecture and text reading as the main methods of instruction [2]. The quality of students' notes (as indicated by the number of words, complex propositions, and main ideas recorded in notes) are correlated significant with students' ability to retrieve later the target information presented to them in lectures [3]. The greater the amount of target information the teacher presents in lectures over a certain period of time, the lower students' ability to retrieve it later from long-term memory [4]. Unfortunately, even though taking notes is associated with achievement, students who are poor note takers seem to have great difficulty improving the quality of the notes they take on their own [5].

When using lectures and textbooks and note taking as the primary method of instruction, what students actually learn depends on what teachers do while lecturing and what they do after lecturing. Teachers' instructional actions while lecturing constitute Step One of a Rehearsal Strategy, and teachers' instructional actions after lecturing constitute Step Two of a Rehearsal Strategy.

STEP ONE: ENCODE TARGET INFORMATION

During lectures teachers should focus students' attention on the target information, and help students distinguish it from the other information being presented that is intended to provide a meaningful context for the target information. For example, periodically during the lecture, the teacher might say, while referring to target information, "Now listen carefully to this, this is very important." [6]. Using written cues to focus students' attention on target information results in greater retention of that information than spoken cues do [7]. College students write in their notebooks between 88 percent and 95 percent of the words the teacher writes or shows on a screen or chalkboard [8]. Therefore, teachers should write or show target information, and summaries of it, on a screen or chalkboard. When presenting visual information, such as one portion of a map, the teacher can focus students' attention on the target information by making it more visually prominent than other information [9]. Teachers will have difficulty focusing students' attention on target information if they themselves are not clear about what they really want their students to learn, on what they consider to be the target information for a topic. One way teachers can identify the target information for a certain topic is to write an assessment task for it; the written exam teachers use in testing students about the topic. If information is important enough to be included in an exam for a topic then it must be the target information for the topic.

STEP TWO: PRACTICE RETRIEVING TARGET INFORMATION

After a lecture or an assigned reading, teachers should provide opportunities for students to identify, to repeat and to make more meaningful the target information that was presented. First, teachers should help students review the information in order to pick out the important target information, and to write any target information they have not already identified [10]. Second, teachers should help students relate the target information to their experiences and to previously learned information [11]. Third, teachers should help students generate questions about the target information, the kind of questions that might be on an exam [12]. Fourth, teachers should help students summarize the target information in their own words [13]. These procedures have been found effective in helping students learn mathematics [14], science [15], geography [16], economics [17], and reading comprehension [18].

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1. (For example). Peper, R.J., Meyer, R.E. (1986). Generative effects of notetaking during science lectures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 34-39. 2. Griffen, R.W., & Cashin, W.E. (1989). The lecture and discussion method for management education: Pros and cons. Journal of Management Development, 8, 25-32. 3. (For example). Einstein, G.O., Morris, J., & Smith, S. (1985). Notetaking, individual differences, and memory for lecture information. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 522-532. 4. Aiken, E.F., Thomas, G.S., & Shennum, W.A. (1975). Memory for a lecture: Effects of notes, lectures, and informational density Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 439-444. 5. Bretzing, B.H., & Kulhavy, R.W. (1981). Note-taking and passage style. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 242-250. 6. Kiewa, K.A. (1989). A review of note-taking: The encoding-storage paradigm and beyond. Educational Psychological Review, 1, 147-172. 7. Scerbo, M.W., Warm, J.S., Dember, W.N., & Grasha, A.F. (1992). The role of time and cuing in a college lecture. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 17, 312-328. 8. Locke, E.A. (1977). An empirical study of lecture notetaking among college students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 93-99. 9. (For example). Schwartz, N.H. (1988). Cognitive processing characteristics of maps: Implications for instruction. Educational and Psychological Research, 8(2). 93-102. 10. DiVesta, F.J., & Gray, S.G. (1972). Listening and notetaking. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 8-14. 11. (For example). Brown, A.L., Bransford, J.D., Ferrara, R.A., & Campione, J.C. (1983). Learning, remembering, and understanding. In J.H. Flavel & E.M. Markman (Eds,, Handbook of child psychology(Vol. 3). pp. 77-166. 12. Davey, B. & McBride, S. (1986). Effects of question-generation training on reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 256-262. 13. (For example). Carrier, C.A., & Titus, A. (1981). Effects of note-taking pretraining and test mode expectations on learning from lectures. American Educational Research Journal, 18, 385-397. 14. Peled, Z. & Wittrock;, M.C. (1990). Generated meanings in the comprehension of world problems in mathematics. Instructional Science, 19, 171-205. 15. Osborne, R.J., & Wittrock, M.C. (1985). The generative learning model and its implications for science education. Studies in Science Education, 12, 59-87. 16. MacKenzie, A.W., & White, R.T. (1982) Fieldwork in geography and long-term memory structure. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 623-632. 17. Kourilsky, M.L., & Wittrock. M.C. (1992). Generative teaching: An enhancement strategy for the learning of economics in cooperative groups. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 821-876. 18. Wittrock, M.C., Marks, C.B., & Doctorow, M.J. (1975). Reading as a generative process. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 484-489.

Rehearsal Strategy: Note Taking

This posting will focus on Steps One and Two of a Rehearsal Strategy when the Rehearsal Task uses Note Taking. When performing a Rehearsal Task that involves taking notes, students write about what is presented to them in lectures and textbooks, only some of which is target information. Taking notes during lectures is the sole learning method used by most high school and college students [1]. As many as 75 percent of college courses use lecture and text reading as the main methods of instruction [2]. The quality of students' notes (as indicated by the number of words, complex propositions, and main ideas recorded in notes) are correlated significantly with students' ability to later retrieve the target information presented to them in lectures [3]. The greater the amount of target information the teacher presents in lectures over a certain period of time, the lower students' ability to retrieve it later from log-term memory [4]. Unfortunately, even though taking notes is associated with achievement, students who are poor note takers seem to have great difficulty improving the quality of the notes they take on their own.

When using lectures and textbooks and note taking as the primary method of instruction, what students are actually likely to learn depends on what teachers do while lecturing and what they do after lecturing. Teachers' instructional actions while lecturing constitute Step One of a Rehearsal Strategy, and teachers' instructional after lecturing constitute Step Two of a Rehearsal Strategy.

STEP ONE: ENCODE TARGET INFORMATION

During lectures teachers should focus students' attention on the target information, and help students distinguish it from other information that is intended to provide a meaningful context for the target information. For example, periodically during the lecture, the teacher might say, while referring to target information, "Now listen carefully to this, this is very important." [6]. Using written cues to focus students' attention on target information results in greater retention of that information than spoken cues do [7]. College students write in their notebooks between 88 percent and 95 percent of the words the teacher writes or shows on a screen or chalkboard [8]. Therefore, teachers should write or show target information, and summaries of it, on a screen or chalkboard. When presenting visual information, such as one portion of a map, the teacher can focus students' attention on the target information by making it more visually prominent than other information [9]. Teachers will have difficulty focusing students' attention on target information if they themselves are not clear about what they really want their students to learn, on what they consider to be the target information for a topic. One way teachers can identify the target information for a certain topic is write an assessment task for it; the written exam teachers will use in testing students about the topic. If information is important enough to be included in an exam for a topic then it must be the target information for the topic.

STEP TWO: PRACTICE RETRIEVING TARGET INFORMATION

After a lecture or an assigned reading, teachers should provide opportunities for students to identify, to repeat and to make more meaningful the target information that was presented. First, teachers should help students review the information in order to pick out the important target information, and to write any target information they have not already identified [10]. Second, teachers should help students relate the target information to their own experiences and to previously learned information [11]. Third, teachers should help students generate questions about the target information;, the kind of questions that might be on a exam [12]. Fourth, teachers should help students summarize the target information in their words [13]. These procedures have been found effective in helping students learn mathematics [14], science [15], geography [16], economics [17], and reading comprehension [18].

____________________

1. (For example). Peper, R.J., Meyer, R.E. (1986). Generative effects of notetaking during science lectures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 34-39

2. Griffen, R.W., & Cashin, W.E. (1989). The lecture and discussion method for management education: Pros and cons. Journal of Management Development, 8, 25-32.

3. (For example). Einstein, G.O., Morris, J., & Smith, S. (1985). Notetaking, individual differences, and memory for lecture information. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 522-532.

4. Aiken, E.F., Thomas, G.S., & Shennum, W.A. (1975). Memory for a lecture: Effects of notes, lectures, and informational density Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 439-444.

5. Bretzing, B.H., & Kulhavy, R.W. (1981). Note-taking and passage style. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 242-250.

6. Kiewa, K.A. (1989). A review of note-taking: The encoding-storage paradigm and beyond. Educational Psychological Review, 1, 147-172.

7. Scerbo, M.W., Warm, J.S., Dember, W.N., & Grasha, A.F. (1992). The role of time and cuing in a college lecture. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 17, 312-328.

8. Locke, E.A. (1977). An empirical study of lecture notetaking among college students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 93-99.

9. (For example). Schwartz, N.H. (1988). Cognitive processing characteristics of maps: Implications for instruction. Educational and Psychological Research, 8(2). 93-102.

10. DiVesta, F.J., & Gray, S.G. (1972). Listening and notetaking. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 8-14.

11. (For example). Brown, A.L., Bransford, J.D., Ferrara, R.A., & Campione, J.C. (1983). Learning, remembering, and understanding. In J.H. Flavel & E.M. Markman (Eds,, Handbook of child psychology(Vol. 3). pp. 77-166.

12. Davey, B. & McBride, S. (1986). Effects of question-generation training on reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 256-262.

13 (For example). Carrier, C.A., & Titus, A. (1981). Effects of note-taking pretraining and test mode expectations on learning from lectures. American Educational Research Journal, 18, 385-397.

14. Peled, Z. & Wittrock;, M.C. (1990). Generated meanings in the comprehension of world problems in mathematics. Instructional Science, 19, 171-205.

15. Osborne, R.J., & Wittrock, M.C. (1985). The generative learning model and its implications for science education. Studies in Science Education, 12, 59-87.

16. MacKenzie, A.W., & White, R.T. (1982) Fieldwork in geography and long-term memory structure. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 623-632.

17. Kourilsky, M.L., & Wittrock. M.C. (1992). Generative teaching: An enhancement strategy for the learning of economics in cooperative groups. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 821-876.

18. Wittrock, M.C., Marks, C.B., & Doctorow, M.J. (1975). Reading as a generative process. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 484-489.

Rehearsal Strategy: Adjunct Questions

This posting will focus on Steps One and Two of a Rehearsal Strategy when the Rehearsal Task uses Asking Adjunct Questions. Adjunct questions are spoken or written questions about target information that is given in written selections or spoken passages containing both target information and other information. Asking students adjunct questions is effective in helping them encode target information that is located with other information in written material [1]. But there is some evidence that lower-ability students benefit more from answering adjunct questions than do higher ability students, who already seem able to pick out and encode target information after reading selections, and asking higher-ability students adjunct questions about what they read may even lower their encoding of the target information [2]. Adjunct questions usually ask for an identification of the target information in the selections, such as, "What did that page say about the properties of oxygen?" The selections students read at one time may vary from a short paragraph to many pages. The questions about the target information may be of three kinds: (a) pre-questions (questions asked before students read a selection), (b) embedded questions (questions located in the selection that students answer as they read a selection), and (c) post-questions (written or spoken questions asked after they read a selection).

Adjunct questions are most effective when they have four characteristics [3].

EFFECTIVE USE OF ASKING ADJUNCT QUESTIONS

Ask Post Questions

Ask questions only after students have read a selection.

Require Explicit Performance From All Students

Have all students write the answer to each question, and to do so without looking back at the selection.

Ask Production Questions

Ask open-ended questions, like essay questions, rather than multiple-choice questions.

Read Short Selections

Have students read relatively short selections or portions of longer selections. The length will depend on the density of the target information and on students' ability.

An effective method for having all students actively answer adjunct questions is to have them write their answers to questions. While students write the teacher circulates around the classroom, assisting those needing guidance and keeping everyone actively on task [4].

Teachers can increase what students learn from answering adjunct questions by also asking them to elaborate on an answer by summarizing it in their own words or by making an analogy to other information [5]. For example, after students have identified the target information about the properties of oxygen, the teacher might ask, "How are the properties of oxygen like and unlike the properties of hydrogen that we read about earlier?"

EXAMPLE OF USING REHEARSAL STRATEGY WITH ADJUNCT QUESTIONS

DAY ONE

REHEARSAL TASK

The teacher assigns students to read pages in the history text and write answers to the questions the teacher will show on the screen. After a while the teacher projects the questions on the screen. When students finish reading they write the answers on their papers.

REHEARSAL GUIDANCE

The teacher walks around the room while students carry out the assignment, making certain that all are working. When he notices an incorrect answer he directs the student's attention to the relevant section in the book.

DAY TWO

RECALL-PRACTICE TASK

The next day the teacher has students locate their written answers to yesterday's questions, and turn the papers over on their desks. She then asks students the questions and has them take turns answering. The teacher tries to maximize the number of students participating by asking different students what their answers were, and how their answers compare with that of other students. She also asks questions requiring students to make analogies between the information they read yesterday, information they read previously, and even events happening currently.

RECALL-PRACTICE GUIDANCE

When students seem to have difficulty answering a question, the teacher has them turn their papers over and reread them.

PERIODICALLY ON SUBSEQUENT DAYS

The teacher does shortened versions of the recall-practice tasks in a kind of practice test, and provides guidance when it is needed. By this time students will have studied other target information and so the questions can cover all of the information studied.

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1. Hamaker, C. (1986). The effects of adjunct questions on prose learning. Review of Educational Research, 56, 212-242.

2. Callender, A.A., & McDaniel, M.A. (2007). The benefits of embedded question adjuncts for low and high structure learners. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 339-348.

3. (For example). Anderson, R.C., & Biddle, W.B. (1975). On asking questions about what they are reading. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 9). New York: Academic Press.

4. (For example). Fisher, C.W., Filby, N.M., Marliave, R., Cahan, L.S., Dishaw, M.N., Moore, J.E., & Berlilner, D. (1978). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: Final report of Phase III-B, Beginning teacher evaluation study. San Francisco, CA: Far West Educational Laboratory for Educational Research and Development.

5. (For example). Woloshyn, V., Pressley, M., & Schneider, W. (1992). Elaborative interrogation and prior knowledge effects on learning of facts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 115-124.