Elaboration Strategy: Images

This posting will focus on Steps One and Two of the Elaboration Strategy when the Elaboration Task in Step One uses Images. Images consist of sensory experiences that are encoded in long-term memory as representations that correspond more or less directly with the configurations of elements in concrete things and actions [1]. The sensory experiences may be visual, auditory, olfactory, touch, taste, kinesthesis, temperature or any combination of these. Images can be encoded from sensory experiences of concrete objects (e.g., looking at and touching a real door). And images can be retrieved from long-term memory by words (e.g., hearing the word "door" makes one think of the large, green, squeaky door in the classroom) [2].

STEP ONE: ENCODE TARGET INFORMATION AND ELABORATION INFORMATION

The purpose of instruction in Step one is for students to initially encode the target information and elaboration information in long-term memory.

ELABORATION TASK (Images)

Visual images are the most instructionally effective elaborators for learning verbal target information [3]. Regardless of their age and the subjects they are studying, students' encoding and retention of the verbal target information they are reading about is enhanced when that information is associated with pictures [4], illustrations or diagrams [5], or maps [6]. Even simply asking students to "think about" the pictures that might be related to the verbal target information they are reading about enhances their encoding and retention of that information [7]. Visual images are powerful elaborators for verbal target information because they are more easily retrieved from long-term memory. Pictures of objects are encoded more quickly and retained longer than the names of those objects [8]. Words that naturally evoke visual images of concrete objects and actions are encoded faster and retained longer than words that are not so naturally visual evoking [9]. For example, students remember the pronunciation of a visual-evoking written word like cat longer than a relatively less visual-evoking written word like cute, and the written word cute longer than an even less visual-evoking written word like come. The most difficult words to remember are those that evoke no visual, such as to and the. Students remember the more visual-evoking words better than the less visual-evoking words regardless of whether the words are presented singly, in sentences, or in paragraphs [10]. Images are more effective as elaborators when students supply their own than when teachers or publishers supply them [11]. Visual images are effective as elaborators for written target information only to the degree that the visuals illustrate the written written target information [12]. In addition, when visuals illustrate only some of the written target information given in a passage, students remember the illustrated written information better than they remember the written information that was not illustrated [13]. To often textbooks provide pictures that make pages more attractive but do not illustrate the written target information, and so those pictures do not facilitate the learning of verbal target information.

Sensory experiences can be used as elaborators for target information in three modes: Enactive, Iconic and Symbolic [14]. The modes differ in their effectiveness as elaborators for target information. Enactive sensory experiences are usually the most effective elaborators for target information [15]. And iconic experiences are usually more effective elaborators than symbolic experiences [16]. Each mode of presenting sensory experiences can result in the encoding of quite different images even when it is for the same written words, such as the words red apple.

ENACTIVE SENSORY EXPERIENCES

The teacher provides actual objects and actions, enabling students to encode images directly from perceived sensory experiences. Because actual objects and actions often contain such a wide variety of possible sensory experiences, many of which are not suitable as an elaborator for the target information, the teacher often needs to focus students' attention on the particular sensory experiences that are to be used as the elaborator. For example, the teacher shows students actual apples, cuts them into pieces and gives each on a piece to eat. The teacher focuses their attention by having them describe how the apple looks, feels, smells and tastes.

ICONIC SENSORY EXPERIENCES

The teacher provides models, photographs and drawings of objects and actions, enabling students to encode images that are based on the limited sensory experiences provided by the icon. The closer the icons are to the actual objects or actions,the more complete and realistic students' encoded sensory experiences are likely to be, and the more effective they will be as elaborators. For example, the teacher shows students a a photograph of an apple. The sensory representation students encode for this limited sensory experience represents the color and two-dimensional shape of an apple, but not its smell, feel and taste.

SYMBOLIC SENSORY EXPERIENCES

The teacher describes objects and actions, with the intent of enabling students to mentally abstract from their previously encoded images those particular sensory experiences that they are to mentally synthesize into a new image. Whether a particular sensory experience is an effective elaborator for target information depends on (a) students' already having previously encoded the images from which certain sensory experiences will be abstracted, and (b) their ability to mentally analyze and synthesize sensory experiences. For example, the teacher explains that an apple is usually red, about the size of a baseball, and is good to teat. The image students are likely to encode from this limited symbolic experience is that an apple is like a red baseball that can be eaten. This image is so limited that students who have encoded it probably would not recognize a real apple when they saw it, and it will probably not be effective as an elaborator for target information.

Teachers can use a Rehearsal Task in helping students encode together the target information and elaboration information. The two kinds of information are presented and repeated together.

ELABORATION GUIDANCE

While students are performing Elaboration Tasks the teacher focuses their attention on the target and elaboration information, and provides confirming and corrective feedback.

STEP TWO: PRACTICE RETRIEVING TARGET INFORMATION

Have all students retrieve the target information from long-term memory without the elaborator being present. Provide guidance.

RECALL-PRACTICE TASK

Use activities that require all students to retrieve the target information frequently and by itself, without the elaborator. Unless students are given tasks that require them to retrieve the target information apart from the elaboration information, they are unlikely to to be able to retrieve the target information later if the elaborator is not present [17]. In effect, if retrieval of the target information is not practiced by itself, the intended elaboration information becomes part of the target information. For example, if students are helped to learn to read the word cute (target information) by associating it with the picture of a cute dog (elaboration information), and never practice reading the word cute by itself, they may not be able to read the word cute in this sentence: Did you see the cute hat Mary was wearing,? unless a picture of the cute dog is located by the word. Recall-practice tasks, like assessment tasks, ask only for the retrieval of target information.

RECALL-PRACTICE GUIDANCE

When students perform recall-practice tasks adequately the teacher provides confirming feedback. When students are unable to perform recall-practice tasks adequately, the teacher provides corrective feedback by helping them to think back to the elaborator "Do you remember the picture we looked at before? What was it it? Good. What sentence was beside the picture?" The teacher varies the explicitness of this corrective feedback according to students' changing ability to retrieve the target information. The teacher might even have to repeat the elaboration task. Teachers' patient guidance here is very important because the teacher is also modeling how students might later use the same method the teacher is using to retrieve the elaborator in order to "hook onto" the target information.

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1. Anderson, J.R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

2. Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

3. (For example). Arlin, M., Scott, M., & Webster, J. (1978/79). The effects of pictures on rate of learning sight words: A critique of the focal attention hypothesis. Reading Research Quarterly, 14, 645-660.

4. (For example). De Rose, T. (1976). The effects of verbally and pictorially induced and imposed strategies on children's memory for text. Madison: University of Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service, No. ED 133 709).

5. (For example). Anderson, R.C., & Kulhavy, R.W. (1972). Imagery and prose learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 242-248.

6. (For example). Dean, R.S., & Kulhavy, R.W. (1981). Influences of spatial organization in prose learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 57-64.

7. Schallert, D.L. (1980). The role of illustrations in reading comprehension. In R.J. Spiro, B.C. Bruce, & W.F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. (pp. 503-524). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

8. Levie, H.W., & Levie, D. (1975). Pictorial memory processes. AV Communication Review, 23, 81-97.

9. (For example). Borges, M.A., Lewis, L.K., & Lillich, Jr., J.W. (1997). Effects of verbal study strategies on the free recall and retention of concrete and abstract nouns. Psychological Reports, 49, 147-156.

10. (For example). Anderson, R.C. (1974). Concretization and sentence learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 179-183.

11. (For example). Ley, R., & Lacascio, D. (1977). Subject-generated and experimenter-supplied association cues in recall of associatively encoded words. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 10, 139-141.

12. (For example). Mayer, R.R., Bove, W., Bryman, A., Mars, R., & Tapangco, L. (1996). When less is more: Meaningful learning from visual and verbal summaries of science textbook lessons. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 64-73.

13. Peeck, J. (1974). Retention of pictorial and verbal content of a text with illustrations. Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 880-888.

14. (Identified by Bruner). Bruner, J.S. (1961) The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31, 21-32.

15. Westman, A.A., & Delprato, D.J. (1974). Effect of presentation mode on organization and recall. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2, 415--416.

16. Denis, M. (1973). Comparative stability of learning pictorial and verbal material. Psychologice, 18, 47-59.

17.(For example). Singer, H. (1980). Sight word learning with and without pictures: A critique of Arlin, Scott and Webster's research. Reading Research Quarterly, 15, 290-298.